【North America 2】American Indians who are both country and people
On the fourth Thursday of November every year, when families across the United States gather together to celebrate Thanksgiving, have you ever thought about this festival commemorating the early pioneers of the United States, such as the Pilgrims, who celebrated the harvest and winter in 1621? It is also the "National Memorial Day" of the Indians. National Day of Mourning. Since 1970, Indians have launched protest marches in Plymouth, Massachusetts, the birthplace of Thanksgiving, to awaken the world to the fact that they were invaded and harmed from the day Europeans set foot on American soil. The coexistence of gratitude and mourning on the same day has become one of the great ironies of American history.
This article focuses on the Native American Indians, whose development is closely related to the history of the United States. Why we used to be the owners of land in the United States and became a nation of zero is really worthy of deep reflection.
It’s a country and a people, it’s not complete and it’s not true.
1. Beginning from Yiguo
Long before the American Revolution, in order to establish strongholds on the North American continent, European powers formed alliances and treaties with Indian groups in various places to fight against the expansion of enemy forces. The Indian ethnic group is a "buffer country" for various countries to avoid direct confrontation, and they are also happy to coexist with the separatist groups. When the United States defeated the British again in 1812, successfully shattered the British threat to support the Indians against the United States, and gradually normalized relations with Spain, the Indians' role as a buffer state against the great powers of the United States had disappeared. The existence of these aborigines suddenly became an obstacle to westward development. How to deal with these groups?
a.The Indians became a nation within a nation: The founding of the United States stipulates that all people are equal, and all citizens are protected by the Constitution. However, it was stated in the early days that Indians are not individuals but belong to "nations", so they are not covered by the constitution. The Indian nation is not an independent country and cannot exercise autonomy. It is a domestic dependent country of the United States. Congress has the highest (plenary) governance power and is like the guardian of the Indians. The Indians become guardians. ward is different from the equal relationship between countries.
b.The Indians have become people among the people.: As long as you are born in the United States, you are a U.S. citizen and can enjoy the human rights granted by the country. However, from the independence of the United States until the 1920s, even if Indians were born in the United States, they could not become American citizens. At best, they were only citizens of their own country.
2. The country China lost all its land
a.Diplomatic treaty: Since the colonial era, European countries have obtained the land rights of Indian groups through treaties, and this was still used after the United States became independent from the British regime. The political situation has changed, and the Indian tribes have no choice but to sign a contract and cede a large amount of land, while the federal government provides limited funding. During this period, there were many frauds and bribes, to trick the clan leaders into agreeing to the terms, and even signing the contract without translating the terms. Congress continued this policy to absorb Indian lands from the founding of the country until 1912.
b.Relocation policy: Since the states were concentrated on the east coast in the early days of the founding of the country, the Indians scattered in this area have lost many of their homes, and their presence hinders the expansion of the United States' borders. Finally, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act in 1830, vigorously promoting the relocation policy and exchanging land west of the Mississippi River for the ethnic group's inherent homeland. It was President Jackson (Andrew Jackson) who actively promoted this policy at that time.
When faced with stubbornly resisting ethnic leaders, the government also used divisive policies to form alliances with ethnic minorities. For example, in 1835, the authorities bypassed the mainstream Cherokee people who opposed relocation and reached an agreement with the minority. Although the leader of the tribe refused to recognize it and refused to move, Jackson ordered the army to forcibly relocate in 1838, escorting 15,000 tribesmen to walk 1,300 miles west from Georgia. It was the middle of winter, and by the time they reached their destination in what is now Oklahoma, the death toll was as high as 4,000. The resulting tragedy is known as the Trail of Tears in history.
Other Indian groups had similar fates. For example, the Potawatomies in Indiana were unwilling to move, and their homes and crops were burned to death by state government militia. They had no choice but to be escorted by the army and embark on the road of no return. On the way to Kansas, many young children contracted typhoid and died, leaving a mark on history as the Trail of Death.
c. Soil separation measures: As the Indian groups continued to move westward, they were assigned by the government to designated reservations. The locations were often remote and poor, and the original intention was to allow them to live separately from the Chinese. After the Civil War, the West was pioneered again, and the influx of new white immigrants continued to cause friction with the Indians.
Segregated life was soon changed by the expansion of the West. The rapid development of the east-west railway and the developed transportation allowed the army to quickly mobilize troops to occupy the indigenous lands scattered in other areas and drive the Indians into more reservation areas. Regardless of whether the reservation area is old or new, it sometimes blocks the extension of railway tracks and telegraph lines. There are also consortia trying to develop the resources in the reservation area, such as oil, forests and other minerals.
In 1887, the U.S. Congress passed the General Allotment Act or Dawes Act, which divided the reservation area territory among individual Indians. The head of the family could receive 160 acres, and single persons over the age of 18 could receive 80 acres. , and those under eighteen years old can receive forty acres. The recipient of the land must agree to learn American farming practices in order to obtain American citizenship.
Under this policy, the government sold all remaining reserved land to other Americans and leased it to development companies at low prices. This land allocation policy was not stopped until 1934, and Indian groups across the United States lost as much as 90 million of their land. mu. Because many reserve areas are geologically poor and unsuitable for wheat production, are remote and lack transportation infrastructure, and are scattered after land allocation, they have severely damaged the life style and livelihood of ethnic groups who rely on mutual assistance and coexistence.
3. People of the people, strict assimilation
a. In the besieged area:Since the Indians were forced to move to other reservations, some people in the United States began to propose that the Indians in the designated areas of the reservations should be civilized into Americans as much as possible. In his 1872 policy address, Francis Waller, the former Commissioner of Indian Bureau, pointed out that enclosing Indians in an area was an effective assimilation model, and those who crossed the border would be monitored by the U.S. military. Responsible for repatriation.
b. Church participation:In view of the continuous conflicts between Indians and white immigrants caused by the enthusiasm of the Chinese people to conquer the West, President Ulysses Grant launched the peace policy in 1871 and introduced the participation of Christian and Catholic groups. Among them, the Quakers put respect for the Indians as their first priority and worked with them. They tried to integrate Christian principles into life, actively cultivated moral beliefs and on-the-job training, and gained Grant's trust. From 1869 to 1985, he served as agent or superintendent of many reserved areas.
However, their efforts and those of other religious groups lacked support from Congress and neighboring white residents, and funding was often insufficient. Many missionaries did not have a deep understanding of aboriginal culture, and misunderstandings occurred from time to time. Many Indians were extremely disgusted with the border blockade of the reservation area, which led to serious conflicts with the supervisory forces, and various religious groups finally withdrew from the front line.
c. Change customs: From the late 1880s to the 1920s, in order to speed up the pace of assimilating Indians and seek more thorough policies, the U.S. government formulated the Code of Indian Offenses, which included polygamy, funerals, witchcraft and medicine, and even traditional Dancing is prohibited. Violators could be imprisoned for ten to ninety days or deprived of government supplies for up to thirty days. In the end, some customs such as dance were not banned, and the law was repealed in 1933, but this had a great impact on the Indians' self-esteem.
d.Boarding school: During the same period, policymakers considered education to be the most comprehensive path to assimilation, especially in childhood. Local officials had to obtain parental consent before Indian children could be educated in boarding schools, but they often forced parents to comply. Most of the children left their homes to attend boarding schools run by the government or religious groups far away from the reservation. Children undergo comprehensive transformation in boarding schools, where they are forced to cut their hair (a shame for boys of many ethnic groups), use school uniforms instead of ethnic uniforms, are given English names, learn mainstream social subjects and Christian teachings, and are strictly prohibited from speaking in ethnic languages and from adhering to their own stereotypes. Belief, you need to attend church, worship, etc. The school rules are strict and the punishments are severe. Forced indoctrination in the form of intensive training negates inherent cultural and ethnic identities, causing many traumas to Indian children.
▲(Left) In 1838, the Cherokee were forced to migrate, walking 1,300 miles westward in the middle of winter. The casualties were heavy, and the tragedy caused was known as the "Journey of Blood and Tears" in history. Image source: http://interactive.wxxi.org/files/images/highlights/Trail_of_Tears.JPG
▲(right) Indian children undergo comprehensive transformation in boarding schools and are forced to cut their hair (this is a shame for boys of many ethnic groups). Forced indoctrination in the form of intensive training denies inherent cultural and ethnic identities. Image source: http://explorepahistory.com/kora/files/1/2/1-2-C2F-25-ExplorePAHistory-a0j6u5-a_349.jpg
Not a country, not a people, nothing but appearances
1. Non-state policy, second migration
From 1953 to the mid-1960s, the government further implemented a termination policy and no longer recognized the assimilated Indian groups as "nations." These nation-states could no longer hold the status of a nation-within-a-nation, and were cut off from federal funding. Many Indians were forced to sell their land or mortgage it to banks, affecting up to 100 tribes. In the 1950s, some Indians in reservation areas and suburbs were relocated to relocation centers in urban areas, causing them to further lose their ethnic identity and life.
2. Like the people but not the people, just a false name
a. Born unknown:Indians were like American slaves and could not become citizens by virtue of being born in the United States. However, after the Civil War that liberated the black slaves, the Constitution was rewritten in 1866 and explicitly stipulated that all people born in the United States could obtain citizenship rights. The black slaves regained their freedom and officially became citizens. However, the Constitution reiterated that this protection did not apply to Indians. Since then, Indians have become the only non-white ethnic group in the United States who were born in the United States but cannot become American citizens after the Civil War.
b. No way to vote:Later, the land partition measures promoted in 1887 enabled many Indians to obtain citizenship. Indians who voluntarily enlisted in the army during the two world wars automatically became citizens. In 1924, Congress even passed the Indian Citizenship Act, granting citizenship Naturalization rights for all American Indians. However, until the mid-1960s, they were still unable to exercise the voting rights enjoyed by ordinary citizens, which was in vain to protect human rights. Many state governments have legislated on their own and used clever excuses to prevent their people from voting, including claiming that Indians only belong to reservation areas and are not considered residents of the state; Indians do not meet the requirements for paying taxes and must even be able to read and write in English. They do everything possible to prevent Indians from voting. Exercise the right of citizens to vote.
Be the country and the people, reaffirm
The rights of Indians have been trampled on for many years. Finally, in 1965, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act (Voting Rights Act), which negated the voting restrictions of state governments, and Indians could vote freely. Encouraged by the civil rights movement, the government also repudiated past non-state policies. Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination Act in 1975, reaffirming the status of "nation". By 2012, there were 564 people in the country. a federally recognized ethnic group. In 2009, President Obama signed a public apology to Native Americans. Unfortunately, they have suffered from uprooting from their homeland in the past. The siege and forced assimilation have shaken the core values of the ethnic group. The reservation area is remote and lacks productivity. Recently, the emerging gambling industry has begun to face competition from legal casinos in many other states. The income of most Indians is far below the national level. Various ethnic groups that account for less than 1% of the country's population still face the problem of having only 4% of land rights left. The road is full of thorns.
▲The Voting Rights Act passed by Congress in 1965 negated voting restrictions by state governments, and Indians could vote freely.
Image source: http://itcaonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/IMGP4772.jpg
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Author profile:
Tan Ruiling is willing to learn from the critical spirit of the Old Testament prophets with the perspective of a historical scholar, examine the injustices of the past, speak out for the disadvantaged, and demonstrate the justice of the Kingdom of God. He is currently the editor of "The Voice of Yi Xian".